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Beam Bridge

Beam Bridge is the simplest bridge in its construction and its cost. It also can be called Girder Bridge as it consists of one girder and it is the main part of it. The beam bridge rests at its ends on supports called abutment, and if the span is tool long to be covered by one girder, then multiple girders are used and supported by piers in the mid of main span or depending on the piers number.


Beam Bridge is the first type man invented, in the old times; they used wood logs as bridges to span the rivers. Now the construction materials have been developed, like steel and reinforced concrete. The steel box girder and the concrete one is very efficient in this type of bridges

The forces on the bridge girder is two types, tension at the lower side and compression at the upper side, the weight of the bridge and of  the vehicles on it is transferred through the girder to the abutments to the soil. The limitation of this bridge is represented in its length as it can't support large spans because of the deflection effect. The longest girder bridge is "Lake Pontchartrain Causeway" which is located at Louisiana state in the us, its whole length is 38.35 km divided into single spans of length 17 m each  

Erosion

Erosion refers to the process of weathering and transporting the materials around the earth like soil and rock. The erosion force usually occurs by the wind, water and natural slopes or some chemicals like acid rain


Although the erosion process is from the nature but lately it has been increased because the wrong behaving of human in dealing with nature resources, these like deforestation and the huge industrial revolution



One of the main causes of erosion is the gravity effect, on edged or creep sloped areas, the particles leave its places from higher levels to lower land due to gravity. The obvious example for erosion caused by the force of water is the shores erosion, it happens because of the tides effect. On very huge scale, erosion can happen by the movement of crust (the outer layer of the earth), in this case, erosion is caused by Tectonic effects

Caissons

A caisson is a structure used in construction
particularly underwater projects like bridge or dam construction. It is constructed to provide a dry, protected environment for workers and
construction materials

The caisson is generally a box like structure with an open bottom and open top some times. The structure keeps water out of the construction area while its open bottom allows workers to place foundations and piers in the sea bed or riverbed. An open caisson can be used in shallow water; its open top allows light and air to enter from above the water line

  For deep-water construction, a pneumatic caisson has a closed top; pressurized air is  pumped in, and personnel enter and leave through an airlock. Both types have sharp inclined lower edge, which allows the caisson to be deeply embedded in the ground

Before putting the caisson in its place, engineers look for stable seabed like rock. But if they don’t find this layer they make artificial layer to  provide safety to the caisson. In pneumatic caissons, an airlock allows access to the chamber and the pressurized air flow must be constant to ensure regular air changes for the workers and prevent excessive inflow of mud or water at the base of the caisson

For getting out the consumed material and excavation ashes, the workers use muck tube connected to the surface. A crane at the surface removes the soil with a clam shell bucket